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Guides and calculators for the engineers who specify, install and commission energy monitoring.
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132 guides · 62 calculators and reference tables
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- Electrical measurement Three-phase power, kW and kWh, power factor, current transformers, Rogowski coils and submetering.
- Meter interfaces Pulse outputs, wired M-Bus, Modbus RTU, P1 ports and analogue signals from the meters a site already has.
- Protocols and data BACnet, OPC UA, MQTT, IEC 60870 and IEC 61850, SCADA, wireless networks and data quality.
- Flexibility and grid codes Virtual power plants, peak shaving, demand response, battery storage, frequency response and grid codes.
- Building performance Energy management systems, baseload, savings measurement, equipment performance and condition monitoring.
- Planning and commissioning Project worksheets and commissioning checks for pulse, M-Bus, Modbus and analogue connections.
Start here
- kW vs kWh: the difference between power and energy kW is power, the rate energy is used; kWh is energy, the amount used. 1 kW for 1 hour is 1 kWh. Worked examples, everyday conversions and both units on a bill.
- Three-phase power formula and measurement Three-phase power formula P = √3 × V × I × PF, with the kVA, kvar, current and kWh forms, a worked example, star and delta values and unbalanced loads.
- Selecting current transformers (CTs) for energy monitoring Choose a metering CT: 1 A, 5 A, 333 mV or Rogowski output, a ratio for the real load, Class 0.5S vs 0.5, burden in VA and polarity checks.
- Modbus troubleshooting: timeouts, exceptions and wrong values Fix Modbus RTU and TCP timeouts, exception 02, wrong decoded values and frozen readings. Includes timeout arithmetic: 125 registers take 292 ms at 9600 baud.
Calculators
All 62 calculators- kW to amps Convert kW or kVA to amps, or amps to kW or kVA, for DC, single-phase and three-phase circuits.
- Voltage drop Voltage drop on a cable run, and the smallest cable size that keeps it within 3% or 5%.
- Three-phase power Work out active, reactive and apparent power for a balanced three-phase load from voltage, current and power factor.
- CT ratio and burden Work out a CT's secondary current and check its rated burden covers the meter and the lead loop.
- Modbus address converter Work out which register a device map means: zero-based offset, one-based number or 40001-style reference.
- 4-20 mA scaling Scale a 4-20 mA signal to engineering units or back, including square-root flow.
All guides and calculators
- Three-phase power formula and measurement Three-phase power formula P = √3 × V × I × PF, with the kVA, kvar, current and kWh forms, a worked example, star and delta values and unbalanced loads.
- kW vs kWh: the difference between power and energy kW is power, the rate energy is used; kWh is energy, the amount used. 1 kW for 1 hour is 1 kWh. Worked examples, everyday conversions and both units on a bill.
- Power factor, kW and kVA explained kW is active power, kVA apparent power and kvar reactive power. Power factor is kW ÷ kVA, or kWh ÷ kVAh over a period, with tariffs, harmonics and correction.
- True RMS: meaning, formula and energy metering True RMS means the meter computes the root mean square, √(mean of x²). The RMS formula, form factors, and why average-responding meters misread distortion.
- Total harmonic distortion (THD): meaning, formula and limits Total harmonic distortion (THD) compares the harmonics of a voltage or current with its fundamental. Formula, THD vs TDD, IEEE 519 and EN 50160 limits.
- Negative power readings and meter reconciliation Why a meter shows negative kW: real export, a reversed CT or a CT on the wrong phase. Check each phase, then reconcile a main meter with its submeters.
- Solar self-consumption: how to calculate it from meter data How to calculate solar self-consumption and self-sufficiency from generation, import and export meters, with worked intervals and a three-step battery ledger.
- What is a current transformer? How a CT works A current transformer (CT) gives a small secondary current in fixed proportion to a large primary current. How CTs work, ratio, burden, classes and safety.
- Selecting current transformers (CTs) for energy monitoring Choose a metering CT: 1 A, 5 A, 333 mV or Rogowski output, a ratio for the real load, Class 0.5S vs 0.5, burden in VA and polarity checks.
- Rogowski coils for energy monitoring: how they work and how to choose one A Rogowski coil is an air-core current sensor whose output follows di/dt. How it works, the integrator, sizing, low-load accuracy and Rogowski coil vs CT.
- Conductor size, voltage drop and CT aperture Convert AWG and mm², estimate conductor resistance and voltage drop, and check measured cable dimensions against current-sensor apertures.
- High-accuracy electricity metering An energy meter's accuracy class is its error limit: Class 2 is ±2 %, Class 1 ±1 %, Class 0.5S ±0.5 %. IEC 62053 and MID tables, CT error and accuracy checks.
- Operational monitoring, revenue metering and settlement Choose metering for energy analysis, billing, market settlement, power quality and protection. One meter is not proof for every purpose.
- Electricity submetering in commercial buildings Choose submetering points, reconcile the metering tree with the main meter, reuse existing meters and find installation faults that corrupt data.
- Wireless vs wired energy monitoring for retrofits How to choose between wireless and wired energy monitoring in an existing building: power, data path, reporting rate, installation work and failure behaviour.
- AWG to mm² Convert conductor sizes between AWG and mm².
- Conductor resistance Estimate the DC resistance of a conductor run at its operating temperature.
- CT meters: how CT-operated electricity meters work What a CT meter is, when a supply needs one instead of a whole-current meter, how the CT ratio and multiplier work, and how to check the readings.
- CT ratio and burden Work out a CT's secondary current and check its rated burden covers the meter and the lead loop.
- Current transformer selection Size the aperture, check a candidate CT and match its output to the meter.
- kW to amps Convert kW or kVA to amps, or amps to kW or kVA, for DC, single-phase and three-phase circuits.
- kW, kVA, kvar and power factor Find the rest of the power triangle (kW, kVA, kvar and power factor) from two known values.
- Motor full-load current Find a motor’s full-load current from its kW or hp rating, efficiency and power factor.
- Ohm’s law Find volts, amps, ohms or watts from any two known values.
- Power factor correction Estimate the kvar needed to raise a lagging power factor to a target, and the current it saves.
- Power quality analyser or energy meter: which does a site need? What a power quality analyser records that an energy meter does not, Class A and Class S, how long to measure, and when Modbus meters are the better answer.
- Split-core current transformers: how they work, accuracy and installation How a split-core CT works, its output types, accuracy at low current, how to fit and test one, and when a solid-core CT or a Rogowski coil is the better choice.
- THD and TDD Calculate voltage or current THD, or current TDD, from measured harmonic magnitudes.
- Three-phase power Work out active, reactive and apparent power for a balanced three-phase load from voltage, current and power factor.
- Transformer current Work out the full-load primary and secondary current of a transformer from its kVA rating and voltages.
- Transformer losses Separate the loss that remains while energised from the loss that rises with current.
- Voltage drop Voltage drop on a cable run, and the smallest cable size that keeps it within 3% or 5%.
- Voltage unbalance Calculate voltage unbalance from three line-to-line readings using the NEMA method.
- Pulse meters: dry pulse vs active pulse A pulse output meter sends one pulse per fixed quantity of energy, gas or water. Compare dry contact, open-collector, S0 and active outputs, timing and scaling.
- Heat metering: how heat meters work and how to monitor their data A heat meter calculates thermal energy from water flow and the flow and return temperatures. How heat metering works, classes, M-Bus or pulse reading.
- P1 port guide: DSMR smart meter data How Dutch DSMR and Belgian eMUCS P1 smart-meter ports work, including the RJ12 pinout, telegrams, OBIS codes, commissioning checks and the DSMR6/X1 transition.
- What is Modbus? How the Modbus protocol works Modbus is a request and response protocol: a client reads and writes numbered registers in a server. Data model, function codes, RTU and TCP frames.
- Modbus TCP vs Modbus RTU Modbus RTU vs Modbus TCP in one table: RS-485 or Ethernet, CRC or MBAP header, bus address or IP and unit ID, port 502, timing, gateways and security.
- RS-485 vs Modbus vs RS-232 Is Modbus the same as RS485? No: RS-485 is the physical layer and Modbus the protocol that runs on it. A comparison table, Modbus RTU, and RS-232 vs RS-485.
- RS-485 wiring, termination and bias RS-485 wiring for Modbus RTU: cable, RJ45 and D-sub pinout, daisy-chain topology, stubs, termination, bias, A/B polarity, common conductor and length.
- Modbus register maps: addresses, data types and scaling What a Modbus register map contains and how to read one: the four register types, an example row, 40001 addresses, 32-bit values, word order and scaling.
- Modbus troubleshooting: timeouts, exceptions and wrong values Fix Modbus RTU and TCP timeouts, exception 02, wrong decoded values and frozen readings. Includes timeout arithmetic: 125 registers take 292 ms at 9600 baud.
- Protocol gateway vs transparent bridge Distinguish serial tunnels, Modbus RTU-to-TCP conversion and translation between protocols such as BACnet and Modbus, with tests for each.
- Reading refrigeration controllers over Modbus: Danfoss, Carel and Dixell Serial settings, signed temperature registers and scaling for Danfoss EKC 202, Carel MPXPRO and ir33, and Dixell XR refrigeration controllers.
- 0-10 V signal scaling Scale an analogue voltage signal to engineering units, including spans that do not start at zero.
- 4-20 mA loop voltage Check a 4-20 mA loop has enough supply voltage at its design current.
- 4-20 mA scaling Scale a 4-20 mA signal to engineering units or back, including square-root flow.
- IEEE 754 float converter Convert decimal numbers to IEEE 754 hex and back, with Modbus register words in four displayed ordering patterns.
- M-Bus address planner Check an M-Bus primary address schedule for duplicates and reserved addresses before commissioning.
- Modbus address converter Work out which register a device map means: zero-based offset, one-based number or 40001-style reference.
- Modbus and BACnet gateways: types and how to choose one The five devices sold as a Modbus, BACnet or IoT gateway, what each one does, how to size the polling load and a checklist for choosing one.
- Modbus CRC and LRC Calculate the CRC-16 for a Modbus RTU frame and see the byte order on the wire.
- Modbus function and exception codes Look up any public Modbus function code, data object or exception code, with its request limits.
- Modbus register decoder Decode integer and floating-point values from Modbus registers in four displayed byte orderings.
- Modbus RTU timing Calculate character and frame timing on a Modbus RTU link, and how long a polling cycle takes.
- Pt100 and Pt1000 Convert between resistance and temperature for Pt100 and Pt1000 sensors, with tolerance class limits.
- Pulse meter scaling Convert pulse counts to energy and check pulse rate, pulse width and counter capacity.
- RS-485 termination and bias Check where termination and bias resistors belong on an RS-485 Modbus network.
- RTD lead resistance error Estimate the temperature error that lead resistance adds to a two-wire or three-wire RTD.
- Three-phase energy meters with Modbus: how to choose and read one Choose a three-phase energy meter with Modbus for the supply, current, accuracy and interface, then read its registers correctly and commission it.
- Wired M-Bus segment Check unit loads, far-end voltage and bus capacitance for a wired M-Bus segment.
- What is Zigbee? How the Zigbee mesh protocol works Zigbee is a low-power mesh protocol on IEEE 802.15.4: routers relay readings to a gateway's coordinator. How the mesh, Zigbee 3.0, clusters and security work.
- What is LoRaWAN? How LoRaWAN networks work LoRaWAN is a long-range, low-power network for battery sensors and meters. Devices, gateways, the network server, frequency plans and LoRaWAN vs NB-IoT.
- Zigbee vs LoRaWAN for energy monitoring: when to use each Zigbee vs LoRaWAN compared on range, data rate, power, network and cost, LoRa vs LoRaWAN, EU868 airtime limits and when an energy site needs each.
- What is SCADA? Architecture and energy use cases SCADA (supervisory control and data acquisition) monitors and commands remote equipment: its layers, how the architecture works, SCADA vs EMS and energy uses.
- Cloud API vs local gateway for energy sites Compare cloud APIs and local gateways for energy data: call quotas, timestamps, outages, control, security and hybrid sites.
- Over-the-air firmware updates for IoT devices Plan Zigbee OTA and LoRaWAN FUOTA updates: delivery time, image signing, failure modes, campaign checks and field verification.
- IoT interoperability in multi-vendor systems IoT interoperability is the ability of devices from different vendors to exchange data and use it correctly. The four types, protocol gaps and a 12-step test.
- IoT data privacy and GDPR compliance When IoT meter and sensor data is personal data under the GDPR, the obligations that follow article by article, and how to meet them in energy monitoring.
- How to set a static IP address on Windows 11 Windows 11: Settings > Network & internet > Ethernet > IP assignment > Edit > Manual. Enter the IPv4 address and subnet mask (prefix length 24), or use netsh.
- How to set a static IP address on Ubuntu Desktop Set a static IPv4 address on Ubuntu in Settings > Network or with nmcli (ipv4.method manual, ipv4.never-default). Check it with ip route get, then restore.
- BACnet vs Modbus for building integration BACnet has objects, discovery and a 16-level priority array; Modbus has numbered registers and a register map. Side by side: ports 47808 and 502, MS/TP and RTU.
- BACnet/IP vs MS/TP BACnet/IP runs on Ethernet over UDP port 47808; MS/TP on an RS-485 bus with token passing. Compare speed, wiring, addressing, BBMDs, routers and bus capacity.
- BACnet objects, properties and point lists Build a BACnet point list: analog, binary and multi-state objects, Present_Value, Units, Status_Flags and the PICS.
- BACnet device instances, addresses and discovery A BACnet device instance is 0 to 4,194,302, unique on the site; network numbers are 1 to 65,534. How Who-Is and I-Am find devices, and why one is missing.
- BACnet routing, BBMDs and foreign devices A BBMD (BACnet broadcast management device) forwards Who-Is and I-Am across IP subnets. BDT entries, foreign device registration and TTL, routers and UDP 47808.
- BACnet COV vs polling, and data freshness BACnet COV reports a value only when it moves by the COV increment. Subscription lifetime and renewal, confirmed notifications, and when to poll instead.
- BACnet priority arrays and relinquish BACnet priority array: 16 levels, lowest number wins. The named levels 1, 2, 5, 6 and 8, releasing a command with NULL, and when Relinquish_Default applies.
- OPC UA vs MQTT vs Modbus Compare OPC UA, MQTT and Modbus: data models, status, timestamps, security, ports, one meter reading across all three and commissioning failure tests.
- What is MQTT? The MQTT protocol explained MQTT is a publish and subscribe protocol: clients send messages to topics on a broker, which passes them on to subscribers. Topics, QoS, ports, MQTT 5.
- MQTT QoS, retained messages and stale data MQTT QoS 0, 1 and 2 compared, retained messages and the retain flag, message and session expiry intervals, will delay, queue limits and stale data checks.
- What is MQTTS? MQTT over TLS for energy IoT MQTTS is MQTT inside a TLS connection on TCP port 8883; plain MQTT uses 1883. MQTT vs MQTTS, certificates, client identity, topic ACLs and openssl tests.
- OPC UA clients, servers and node identity An OPC UA NodeId is a namespace index plus a numeric, string, GUID or opaque identifier, as in ns=2;s=Tag. Client vs server, endpoint URLs and namespaces.
- OPC DA vs OPC UA: differences and migration OPC DA (OPC Classic) needs Windows and DCOM; OPC UA runs on any system over TCP port 4840. A comparison table, three migration routes, quality and timestamps.
- Choosing grid communications: IEC 101, IEC 104 and IEC 61850 Compare telecontrol, MMS, GOOSE and sampled values for RTUs, solar plants, batteries and switchgear. Define the point list and acceptance tests.
- IEC 60870-5-101 vs IEC 60870-5-104 IEC 104 runs on TCP port 2404 with k = 12, w = 8 and timers t0 to t3; IEC 101 uses serial FT1.2 frames. What IEC 60870-5 is, time tags and tunnels.
- IEC 60870 ASDUs, causes of transmission and addresses ASDU means application service data unit, the IEC 101/104 message. Tables of type IDs (1 to 103), causes of transmission and the CA and IOA address fields.
- IEC 60870 timestamps and quality descriptors IEC 101/104 time and quality: CP56Time2a, invalid and summer-time bits, plus overflow, blocked, substituted, not topical and invalid quality flags.
- IEC 60870 commands, select-before-operate and confirmation IEC 101/104 commands: direct execute, select-before-operate, activation confirmation, termination, qualifiers and checks of the real equipment state.
- IEC 61850: data models, MMS, GOOSE and SCL IEC 61850 MMS is client/server on TCP port 102; GOOSE and sampled values are layer-2 multicast. Logical nodes, SCL files (ICD, SCD, CID), mapping to IEC 104.
- IoT sensor data collection: methods, transport and quality How IoT sensor data is collected, transported and stored: polling and reporting, gateways, MQTT, timestamps, quality flags, stale limits and counter rollover.
- Telemetry timestamps, source time and arrival time Sensor timestamps: source, collection and arrival time, interval labels, time zones, clock sync, late data and duplicates in energy telemetry.
- Stale, missing and invalid telemetry Distinguish stale, missing, invalid and estimated sensor readings, display their status, and handle their effects on totals, charts and alarms.
- IoT data storage: architecture and options Compare IoT databases, edge history, replay queues and cloud archives. Size storage, define retention and verify delivery and recovery before deployment.
- Store-and-forward buffer sizing for edge gateways Size a gateway buffer: record rate, outage duration, bytes per record, drain time after recovery, retention limits and full-queue behaviour.
- Industrial polling, backpressure and retries How to budget polling on an RS-485 bus or a Modbus TCP gateway: transactions per cycle, the cost of an offline device, overdue reads and safe retries.
- dBm to mW and watts Convert radio power between dBm, milliwatts and watts.
- Fresnel zone clearance Check the space around a radio path, beyond a clear line of sight.
- LoRa airtime See how payload size and radio settings change the time each packet occupies the channel.
- Wireless link budget Add radio gains and losses, then compare received power with receiver sensitivity.
- What is a virtual power plant? A virtual power plant (VPP) pools batteries, generators and flexible loads on many sites into one unit an aggregator dispatches. How it works and what it sells.
- What is demand side response (DSR)? Services, payments and measurement Demand side response pays a site to change its electricity use when the grid needs it. The GB, Irish and EU routes, which loads can flex, and how delivery is measured.
- What is peak shaving? Peak shaving vs load shifting Peak shaving cuts the highest interval demand; load shifting moves kWh to cheaper hours. Demand charges, demand response, load levelling and a battery example.
- EVs as grid assets: V1G, V2G, V2H and V2B V1G, V2G, vehicle-to-home and building: power levels, standards, connection rules, a worked headroom example and site measurement needs.
- OCPP for EV charging networks OCPP is the open protocol between EV chargers and their management system. OCPP 1.6 vs 2.0.1 vs 2.1, security profiles, charging profiles and fallback limits.
- What is dynamic load management for EV charging? Dynamic load management shares a site's spare connection capacity between EV chargers. Static vs dynamic, the 6 A floor, phases, fallbacks and a worked example.
- IoT in demand response: signals, control and verification How a site receives a demand response instruction, changes its load safely and proves what it delivered, and what metering and control each step needs.
- Demand response baselines and measurement Measure demand response: DFS P376 and self-nominated baselines, capped same-day adjustment, baseline accuracy and evidence of delivery.
- What is dynamic response? Dynamic frequency response explained Dynamic response changes power continuously with grid frequency. NESO's Dynamic Containment, Moderation and Regulation compared, and the DC curve for a battery.
- What is FCAS? Australian frequency services and measurement FCAS are the reserves AEMO buys to hold NEM frequency near 50 Hz. The ten FCAS markets, how they are paid, MASS measurement rules, sign conventions and droop.
- BESS control: BMS, EMS and PCS explained In a BESS the BMS protects the cells, the PCS converts DC to AC and the EMS decides when to charge and discharge. Who owns each limit, and the data to read.
- BESS control: verify commands and the asset response Verify battery commands from request to metered response: clock synchronisation, a 500 kW example, expiry handling and commissioning tests.
- Local control: interlocks and a failure matrix Plan local gateway control: authority, interlocks, lost links, stale data, timeouts, restarts and tests before enabling automation.
- UK G99 grid connection requirements G99 covers GB generation and storage above 16 A per phase: Types A to D, the DNO application process, protection settings, storage rules and G100 export limits.
- Ireland RESS 6: project monitoring and auction dates Current RESS 6 auction dates, the roles of metering and operational monitoring, and a practical evidence plan for Irish wind, solar and hybrid projects.
- Spain: independent aggregation and demand response What Royal Decree 88/2026 changes for independent aggregation in Spain, which implementation steps still matter, and the site data needed for demand response.
- France NEBCO: demand flexibility and load shifting How France's NEBCO rules value demand reduction, anticipation and deferred consumption, and the metering, baseline and control records a flexible site needs.
- Section 14a EnWG: controllable devices and network charges §14a EnWG since 2024: new heat pumps, wallboxes and batteries over 4.2 kW accept DSO control, never below 4.2 kW. Modules 1 to 3 and the control box.
- VDE-AR-N 4110: medium-voltage connection rules explained VDE-AR-N 4110:2023-09 is the German medium-voltage connection rule: scope, 4105 or 4110, unit and plant certificates, reactive power and commissioning.
- Dutch Realtime Interface (RTI) for generation above 1 MW Dutch RTI connections: customer endpoint duties, setpoints, lost-link behaviour and the boundary with plant control and site monitoring.
- Renewable energy grid integration and stability How solar and wind affect grid stability: voltage rise, inertia and RoCoF, system strength, ride-through, the fix for each, and GB, Irish and Australian events.
- What is a microgrid? Components, types and control A microgrid is a local group of loads, generation and storage that runs with the grid or as an island. Its components, types and controller, and how it islands.
- Appliance energy See what a fridge, heater or other appliance uses and costs each year.
- Battery charge time Allow for a running DC load, the battery charge limit and extra time at the top of charge.
- Battery LCOS Separate storage ownership cost from charging electricity and compare them per delivered kWh.
- Battery runtime Calculate energy above reserve and runtime, with discharge losses and the inverter power limit.
- Demand response event Measure the reduction delivered in a demand response event, any shortfall, and the rebound afterwards.
- Electricity cost Estimate an electricity bill with energy, demand and fixed charges shown separately.
- EV charging capacity See how many EV chargers a site can run at once, interval by interval, within its import limit.
- EV charging time Find the limiting power and compare charging times without assuming peak power lasts for the whole session.
- Interval demand Turn the energy recorded in one demand interval into average demand in kW.
- Ireland demand side units: monitoring and system services evidence Ireland Demand Side Unit thresholds, testing, live signals and performance evidence for industrial sites, generators, batteries and aggregated demand response.
- Ireland SRESS: small-scale solar and wind project monitoring Ireland's SRESS export tariff: current project sizes, community and SME rates, tariff review, connection evidence and an operational monitoring plan.
- Italy CEI 0-16 and CEI 0-21: grid-connection monitoring Plan operational monitoring around Italy's current LV and MV grid-connection rules without replacing certified protection, DSO control or metering.
- Italy TIDE: monitoring distributed flexibility How Italy's TIDE consolidation phase separates BRP and BSP roles, uses UVAN and UVAZ aggregation, and defines baseline and evidence requirements.
- Italy: CER renewable energy communities and shared self-consumption Italy's CER/CACER rules: eligible plants, hourly shared energy, tariffs and 2026 PNRR milestones. See what monitoring can and cannot prove for GSE settlement.
- kW to kWh Convert kW to kWh for a running time, or kWh back to average kW, with the cost of running.
- Load factor Check how evenly a site uses its peak demand over a billing or reporting period.
- PV string sizing Check temperature-corrected module voltage against inverter limits, and parallel-string current against one tracker’s ratings.
- Solar payback Compare solar investment, fixed tariffs, self-consumption and degradation using transparent annual cash flows.
- Solar PV generation Model monthly solar generation from historical weather and your array layout.
- Solar self-consumption Balance paired PV and load readings interval by interval to find direct solar use, grid imports and exports.
- Spain SRAD: participation and response verification How Spain's current P.O. 7.5 governs SRAD participation, activation, telemetry and settlement, and which independent-aggregation rules remain pending.
- VDE-AR-N 4105: current edition, key requirements and monitoring VDE-AR-N 4105:2026-03 is the current edition, published 27 February 2026: scope, the 800 VA and 30 kVA limits, NA protection settings and changes from 2018.
- Intelligent energy management systems (IEMS) An intelligent energy management system (IEMS) turns metering into action: what one does, what to specify, local or cloud architecture and acceptance tests.
- Finding and valuing overnight baseload How to measure the electricity a site uses out of hours, separate must-run loads from waste, value the avoidable part and verify a change.
- Measuring energy savings against a baseline Measure retrofit energy savings: adjusted baselines, regression, uncertainty, four IPMVP options and data to collect before the change.
- ISO 50001 requirements: clauses, certification and data ISO 50001:2018 requires an energy policy, energy review, significant energy uses, EnPIs, baselines and a data plan. Who must certify, and the data it takes.
- What is an energy audit? Levels, standards and the data it needs An energy audit finds where a site uses energy and which savings pay back. ASHRAE levels 1 to 3, EN 16247 and ISO 50002, who must audit, and a worked example.
- EU Directive 2023/1791 on energy efficiency Directive (EU) 2023/1791, the recast EED: energy management above 85 TJ by 11 October 2027, audits above 10 TJ by 11 October 2026, and the data audits need.
- EU data centre energy and sustainability reporting Apply the EU 500 kW installed IT power threshold, annual reporting scope and measurement rules for energy, backup generation, cooling and water.
- Germany’s GEG building automation requirements Germany’s current Section 56 duties for building automation above 70 kW: deadline, monitoring, open data, indoor climate and lighting control.
- Italy’s building automation requirements for non-residential buildings Italy’s current 290 kW building automation duty, the 2025 deadline, statutory exceptions, required functions and the recast EPBD’s 70 kW step.
- Ireland’s building automation requirements for non-residential buildings Ireland’s current 290 kW building automation duty, required BACS functions, enforcement position and the recast EPBD path to 70 kW and lighting control.
- France’s BACS decree: building automation requirements The current French BACS deadlines, systems in scope, required energy data and controls, inspection duties, and a practical retrofit measurement plan.
- France: room temperature controls and pipe insulation France’s 2027 and 2030 deadlines for room or zone temperature controls and pipe insulation, and how they differ from BACS and OPERAT.
- France OPERAT: tertiary energy reporting guide Who must report to France's OPERAT platform, the 2030, 2040 and 2050 energy targets, and how to build a reliable meter and building-boundary record.
- ESOS phase 4: deadlines, requirements and submetering The ESOS phase 4 qualification date is 31 December 2026 and notification is due by 5 December 2027. Requirements, action plans, progress updates and metering.
- SEAI EXEED grants and the metering they need SEAI EXEED grant rates for 2026, the retention that measured savings release, a worked heat pump example and the metering to fit before the works start.
- Equipment performance monitoring boundaries Define input, useful output, operating state and time boundaries before calculating pump, compressor, boiler, chiller or heat-pump performance.
- Condition monitoring from electrical data Use electrical data to monitor motors, pumps, fans and compressors: baselines, diagnostic limits and when to add vibration or thermal measurements.
- IoT environmental monitoring: sensors, networks and placement IoT environmental monitoring with wireless temperature, humidity, CO₂ and particulate sensors: what each measures, networks, placement, alerts and data gaps.
- HACCP temperature control: critical limits, monitoring and records Critical limits, monitoring, corrective actions and records for chilled, frozen, cooking, cooling and hot-holding steps, and what automation adds.
- Food storage temperatures: chilled and frozen limits by country Chilled, frozen and quick-frozen food temperature limits in EU law and in Ireland, the UK, France, Germany, Italy and Spain, with tolerances and sources.
- Temperature probe placement in cold rooms, fridges and display cases Where to put temperature probes in cold rooms, fridges, freezers and display cases, with buffered probes, defrost cycles, alarm delays and calibration.
- EN 12830 temperature recorders and Regulation (EC) 37/2005 What Regulation (EC) 37/2005 requires for quick-frozen food records, what EN 12830, EN 13485 and EN 13486 cover, and where a monitoring system fits.
- Carbon emissions calculator Convert kWh of electricity or gas to CO₂e with dated, sourced factors or your own.
- Chiller COP Calculate chiller COP, kW/ton and EER from cooling output and electrical input.
- Compressed air specific power Calculate compressed air specific power: electrical input per unit of delivered air flow.
- Dew point and humidity Find dew point from temperature and relative humidity, or the reverse, with absolute humidity.
- Energy monitoring payback calculator Estimate the payback of an energy monitoring system from spend, expected saving and hardware cost.
- Energy unit converter Convert kWh, MJ, Btu, therms and toe, or kW, Btu/h, tons and hp, with every unit at once.
- EPBD recast 2024: requirements and building automation rules What the EPBD recast, Directive (EU) 2024/1275, requires and when: zero-emission buildings, renovation standards, solar, EPCs and Article 13 BACS rules.
- France CEE BAT-TH-116 funding for building management systems What BAT-TH-116 covers for French tertiary-building GTB projects: eligible work, class A or B functions, evidence, controls and the BACS boundary.
- France CEE IND-UT-134: industrial energy-performance measurement Current IND-UT-134 A35-2 rules for industrial energy-performance measurement: eligible uses, power limit, data intervals, history, alarms and evidence.
- Gas m³ to kWh Convert gas meter readings or volume to kWh using the calorific value and correction factor.
- Generator fuel consumption Calculate generator fuel use per hour and per kWh, and the average load over a run.
- Germany EnEfG: energy management, action plans and waste heat Germany’s EnEfG thresholds for energy management, published action plans and waste-heat records, with a practical measurement plan for industry.
- Heat meter check Estimate heat output from flow and temperature difference to check a heat meter reading.
- Heat pump COP Calculate a heat pump's instantaneous COP or measured-period performance factor from heat delivered and electricity used.
- Heating degree days Compare daily temperatures with a balance point and distinguish weather-dependent heating from base load.
- IP rating Decode an IP code: the solids and water numerals, the optional letters and what the rating leaves out.
- Italy: Conto termico 3.0 funding for building automation How Italy’s Conto Termico 3.0 supports eligible building automation: covered buildings, functions, rates, caps, evidence and application timing.
- Italy: mandatory energy audits and ISO 50001 Italy’s current energy-audit rules for large and energy-intensive companies: four-year cycles, 50 toe exemption, qualified auditors, Audit102 and ISO 50001.
- Pump affinity laws Estimate how flow, head and power change when a centrifugal pump's speed changes.
- Spain CAE: energy savings certificates and measurement evidence How Spain's CAE system turns verified final-energy savings into certificates: eligibility, baselines, evidence, verification and metering boundaries.
- Spain RD 56/2016: energy audits and metering evidence Spain’s current large-company energy audit rules: scope, four-year cycle, 85% coverage, registration, measurement evidence and the EU EED transition.
- Choosing an energy monitoring system Ten checks for commercial and industrial energy monitoring: CT error budgets, network limits, cost per point and pilot acceptance criteria.
- Energy monitoring project worksheet Plan a monitoring site: the decision, measurement points, measurement interval, data destination, outage behaviour and acceptance tests.
- Energy monitoring commissioning checklist Commission energy monitoring: point schedules, source-to-report tolerances, timestamps, daylight saving, failure tests, receiver checks and acceptance.
- Pulse meter commissioning and reconciliation Commission pulse metering: output circuit, pulse weight, maximum rate, known-count tests, recovery and reconciliation with the meter register.
- Wired M-Bus commissioning for heat meters Commission wired M-Bus: unit loads, bus voltage, capacitance, primary addresses, telegram records, failure tests and checks against the meter display.
- Modbus RS-485 commissioning Commission Modbus RTU over RS-485: device parameters, wiring, termination, bias, addressing, decoding, polling, data quality and acceptance checks.
- Commissioning 4-20 mA and 0-10 V monitoring Commission analogue signals: loop headroom, scaling, NE 43 fault currents, live-zero voltage, RTD transmitters, sampling and acceptance checks.
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